Hinduism: What Do You Know About the World's Oldest Religion?

Although most of the citizens of the world's largest democracy are Hindus and altogether some 685 million people identify themselves as Hindus, many Americans probably do not know a Hindu as a friend or acquaintance. Yet worldwide only Christianity and Islam count more adherents than Hinduism.

In India, where most Hindus live, about 83 out of 100 people belong to this ancient religion, and there are also substantial Hindu populations in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Indonesia, and half a dozen other countries. In the United States and Europe, Hindus are relatively scarce; an estimated 400,000 live in the U.S.

With few opportunities to know any Hindus or gain firsthand knowledge of their religion, many Americans rely on a jumble of impressions: bearded swamis, sacred cows, Untouchables, fakirs lying on beds of nails, Mahatma Gandhi, exotic temples, idols, and so on. Because this religion is virtually confined to the Indian subcontinent, Westerners have to make a special effort to understand anything about the incredibly complex religion of Hinduism, the oldest of the major world religions.

All the other major religions trace their history to some founder--Buddha, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad. Hinduism is the exception. No one person can be said to be the founder of Hinduism, which began to develop more than 4500 years ago when Aryan tribes invaded the subcontinent and brought with them their sacred writings known as the Vedas. Since then Hinduism has passed through a number of stages. In its original Vedic period Hinduism emerged as a worldly and optimistic faith, in which the faithful worshiped various gods of nature, such as the god of fire, the god of sky, the god of storms and war.

During the next period--the Brahmanic--the role of priests was greatly expanded; they developed complex rituals for daily life as well as for life's milestones. Also during this period the basic concepts of caste, reincarnation, and karma appeared. These beliefs were found in the Vedic treatises, dated as early as the 8th and 7th centuries B.C. and known as the Upanishads--the epitome of early Hindu philosophy.

Gradually during this period, Hindus developed the belief that the many gods they worshiped were really many "faces" of one ultimate God (Brahman) that is also the atman (soul) of all living things. In its final stage philosophical Hinduism explored ways in which the atman could escape from the cycle of births, deaths, and rebirths and achieve moksha, or liberation, into the Brahman.

Hinduism acknowledges a multitude of gods--some say 330 million--but one should distinguish between the folk religion of the Indian masses and the Hinduism of the educated and sophisticated elite. The latter see Brahman as the one God who takes form as all the other gods.

Brahman's chief attributes are seen through the trinity of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer. In practice most Hindus tend to ignore Brahma and direct their devotion to Vishnu and Siva along with their personal and village gods. All sects agree that their many paths lead to the same moksha.

Vishnu is believed to have appeared in nine incarnations to date, including the popular Rama and Krishna; his tenth incarnation is expected in about 450,000 years. Vishnu appears as Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita ("Song of the Lord"), Hinduism's famous epic poem.

Popular Hinduism, as practiced in India's 575,000 villages, seems both polytheistic and tolerant. Devotees often treat images of the gods in their homes and in the temples as they would a person: they offer them food and drink, clothe them, bathe them, and tuck them into bed at night. Again, sophisticated Hindus view these actions as suitable for people of limited education, but they themselves believe that the gods are only aspects of the one great god, Brahman.

The Western observer may be puzzled by the many sects and branches of Hinduism, but he or she might consider how Christianity looks to an educated Hindu. More than a billion people identify themselves as Christians; but they group themselves in such diverse bodies as Southern Baptists, Presbyterians, Amish, Roman Catholics, Pentecostals, Jehovah's Witnesses, Lutherans, Greek Orthodox, Mormons, Anglicans, Seventh-day Adventists, Copts, Quakers, Methodists, and so on. And i if Hindu beliefs are difficult to comprehend, so is the Christian doctrine of the Trinity.

Many Hindus see the world and material things as not fully real; the world is but a maya, or illusion. People experience misery and frustration because they seek pleasure and achievement in this world of maya, and they fail to find a fully real life in God. Only through final union with God can the atman escape this human condition.

You'd better be nice

Unlike Christianity and Islam, which teach that the individual will survive death and attain a state of eternal bliss or deprivation, Hinduism teaches that salvation may take many lives to achieve. If one reaches the state of union with God in this life, he or she will remain in that union forever. But if a person fails to achieve salvation, he or she will be reborn until that goal is reached. The soul reaches salvation by four main paths: those of devotion, knowledge, work, and meditative exercises. An individual Hindu will favor one of these four paths over the other three.

Why do the wicked seem to prosper and the good suffer? Hinduism seeks the answer in its doctrine of reincarnation, which posits that the individual dies and is born again as another person or as an animal in an almost endless series of lives. A person's karma (the force generated by one's actions) determines the nature of the atman's next incarnations.

The evildoer may return to earth as a member of a lower caste or as a dog, a horse, or an Untouchable (a person who is outside the caste system altogether). The virtuous person may be assigned to a higher caste. Either in this life or the next all good is rewarded and all evil punished.

One consequence of belief in karma is the common attitude that those who suffer in this life are simply getting their just deserts. They are suffering the consequences of their bad conduct in a previous existence.

For some Hindus, the doctrine of karma may stem the impulse to improve the condition of the poor and sickly. Following the same reasoning, one wouldn't envy the healthy, powerful, and fortunate since they are enjoying the fruits of the good they accomplished in their previous lives. However, most sophisticated Hindus recognize that since all forms of life have an atman, they are sacred and deserve to be cared for no matter what their present condition is.

Besides reincarnation and karma, the caste system is central to Hindu beliefs and customs. When Aryan invaders conquered the indigenous people, they created the four castes and divided themselves into the three higher castes, while assigning the conquered people to the lowest caste.

The four castes have since been further divided into approximately 3000 subcastes. Hindus may not change their caste during their lifetimes, but they may aspire to a higher caste in their next incarnation. Caste membership determines many aspects of daily life: choice of occupation, social status, dress, religious practices, and even eating habits. Each Hindu is expected to carry out the dharma, or duties, of his or her particular caste and subcaste.

At the top of the system is the Brahmin caste, the priests and intellectuals. Then come the Kshatriyas of the ruling and warrior caste. Third, the Vaisyas who engage in business and the professions. The lowest caste and the one that includes about three fourths of the Indian population is that of the Sudras, or laborers and farmers.

Completely outside the caste system are the Untouchables, who are destined to carry out the most menial tasks. Gandhi called these outcastes harijans, or children of God, and urged compassion toward them. The 1949 constitution of the Indian state declares: "Untouchability is abolished, and its practice in any form is abolished." This official and legal position has had little effect on the life of the Untouchables in the thousands of Indian villages. Nevertheless, Untouchables can now attend college and aspire to better jobs despite the social discrimination.

Hindu marriages are usually arranged by the parents of the bride and groom with the children's consent. Of course, people marry within their own caste. It is not uncommon that the husband and wife have not met before the ceremony. Astrologers choose a propitious time for the wedding ceremony, which is usually conducted by a Hindu priest in the temple. A Brahmin might preside at the wedding of his own son or daughter.

A man's world

After middle age he enters the stage of detachment from material things and may retreat to the forests to live the life of a hermit. In the fourth and final stage the person finds union with God and is considered a holy man. Of course, the demands of modern life may call for some modification of the final two stages.

When a Hindu man believes death is near, he tries to travel to the holy city of Banares to bathe in the sacred waters of the Ganges River. The bodies of ordinary Hindus are cremated preferably on the waterfront of the river. A very few sannyasins, or holy men, are not cremated upon death; rather, their bodies are garlanded by their disciples, weighted, and dropped into the waters. Then they are believed to have achieved union with Brahman.

For many Hindus and Westerners, Gandhi, who lived from 1869 to 1948, represented the highest exemplar of a holy man in modern times. A deeply spiritual reformer and champion of nonviolence, Gandhi was also influenced by the Sermon on the Mount and other non-Hindu writings. For his dedication to an independent India he was sentenced to prison terms totaling seven years. When independence from British colonial rule came in 1947, the country was split into predominantly Hindu India and an Islamic Pakistan. Millions died in the ensuing civil strife. Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu zealot who abhorred tolerance for Muslims.

About 110 million Muslims now live in India, and a much smaller number of Hindus live in Pakistan. Unfortunately conflict between the two great religions has not been resolved. Riots following the destruction of a mosque at Ayodhya in India in 1992 led to an estimated 1200 deaths. Militant Hindus tore down a mosque built more than 450 years ago, but which they said was erected on the site of Rama's birthplace.

If a few Hindus resort to violence, the majority display an attitude of tolerance and nonviolence toward all living things. In this spirit of celebrating the sanctity of life, the cow holds a special place.

For millennia the people of the subcontinent have relied on cows to pull plows, produce milk for babies, and provide dung, which in dried form serves as a major domestic fuel. An estimated 160 million cows roam the large cities of India as well as the villages.

At one time killing a cow was a capital offense, and even to this day no devout Hindu would ever eat beef. At certain times of the year the faithful honor cows by anointing them with oil and dressing them in garlands. Some wealthy Hindus even endow homes for aged and tired cows. Hindus of certain sects also venerate monkeys, rats, and cobras.

Hindus believe one achieves the goal of union with Brahman through good living, ritual, self-control, detachment, purity, nonviolence, charity, and compassion. For most, yoga occupies a paramount role in their spiritual development. At least a dozen types of yoga, involving posture, breath control, and meditative techniques, are practiced.

Although comprehensiveness is characteristic of Hinduism, the religion has given birth to several other religions that could not be confined to Hinduism's parameters. For example, Buddhism was founded by a Hindu in the 6th century B.C. Some of the teachings of Buddha have been incorporated in Hinduism, and Buddha has been added to the list of incarnations of Vishnu. This reabsorption of Buddhism by Hinduism has been so successful that, while Buddhism counts hundreds of millions of devotees in China, Japan, Vietnam, and other countries, it is almost nonexistent in India.

Two much smaller religions--Jainism and Sikhism--also grew out of Hinduism. Sikhism is relatively new--goes back to a reform movement in Hinduism in about 1500 A.D. The Sikhs reject idols, the caste system, and polytheism but retain a belief in reincarnation.

By tradition only someone born into a Hindu family can be considered a Hindu; but since the end of the 19th century, Hindus have accepted the possibility of conversion. Yet Hinduism has experienced only limited success in gaining converts in Western societies. Most of the Hindus in the U.S. are immigrants from India or the children of such immigrants. They attend temples in large cities, such as Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, and Pittsburgh; but only 50 temples serve the Hindu community in the United States. By contrast, it is said that India has more than 650,000 temples.

No doubt the most visible Hindu sect in the U.S. has been the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, the Hare Krishnas. Devotees with shaved heads, saffron robes, and sandals dance in the streets while chanting their mantra in honor of Lord Krishna and typically seek contributions from busy travelers in airport terminals. An Indian swami brought the Hare Krishnas to U.S. shores in 1965. Since his death the movement has endured scandals and schisms. Its members enjoy media attention but have never numbered more than 4000 in the U.S. Of these, several hundred live in a tourist attraction center in West Virginia.

The Vedanta Society, another Hindu sect, was introduced in America by Swami Vivekananda in 1893, when he addressed the World Parliament of Religion in Chicago. A monk heads each of 13 U.S. centers, which seek to meet the spiritual needs of about 2500 followers.

Another traveling swami, Paramahansa Yogananda, attended a meeting of religious liberals in the U.S. in 1920. After some years of lecturing throughout the country, he founded the Self-Realization Fellowship (SRF) in 1935. It reports 44 centers, including nine in California. The SRF promotes Kriya yoga, which is said to condense the time needed to reach cosmic consciousness to as few as three years. Some SRF monks and nuns live a communal life that emphasizes Kriya yoga and meditation.

In the recent past, tens of thousands of Americans enrolled in Transcendental Meditation (TM) courses, whose origins are clearly Hindu. Brought to the U.S. by the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, TM attracted many people who were looking for some technique to alleviate stress in their daily lives.

In a TM initiation ceremony each enrollee received a Sanskrit mantra, the meaning of which was never explained. By spending as little as 20 minutes a day mentally repeating their mantras, the TM initiates were promised inner peace, lower blood pressure, better memories, improved personalities, and other good things.

The Beatles rock group and actress Mia Farrow generated publicity for the movement, but they eventually lost interest. When the Maharishi offered TMers some higher levels of achievement, such as the ability to levitate, he and his practices encountered a higher level of skepticism.

Perhaps the most pervasive vehicle to introduce Hindu concepts into American life has been the New Age movement. An umbrella term that includes channeling, crystals, astrology, spiritual healing, and a mixture of occult fads, New Age invariably bases its teaching on the ideas of reincarnation and karma. Millions of Americans buy New Age books, attend seminars, and join study groups that assume the validity of these two central Hindu concepts.

The Second Vatican Council took a positive view of the spiritual resources of Hinduism. The Fathers of the Council observed that in Hinduism "men contemplate the divine mystery and express it through an unspent fruitfulness of myths and through searching philosophical inquiry. They seek release from the anguish of our condition through ascetical practices or deep meditation or a loving, trusting flight toward God."

Referring to Hinduism, Buddhism, and other non-Christian religions, the Fathers declared: "The Catholic Church rejects nothing which is true and holy in these religions."

Catholic karma

Some Catholics have sought to draw on the vast traditions of Hinduism to enrich their own spiritual lives. For example, Father Bede Griffiths and his companions live in one of the 50 or so Catholic ashrams in India. While rejecting reincarnation or anything contrary to their faith, they practice yoga, live and dress like their Hindu neighbors, eat a vegetarian diet, and employ compatible Hindu symbolism in their Christian worship.

Donald Mitchell, a professor at Purdue University in Indiana, who has taught Hinduism and Buddhism for more than 20 years and been active in various dialogues between the Catholic Church and Eastern religions, explains why making such connections is good: "Through deepening this kind of spiritual and theological encounter between Catholicism and Hinduism, we can hope for a greater mutual understanding and respect. This will certainly advance the peace and tolerance that Hindus hold in such high regard."

Although Hindus have never aggressively attempted to win converts and the efforts of such sects as the Hare Krishnas and the Vedanta Society to win U.S. adherents have been disappointing, two out of three people worldwide identify themselves as Christians, Muslims, or Hindus. Hinduism, the oldest and the third largest world religion, will grow as the population of India grows.